CUSTOMS ON ECOLOGY
Because of expensiveness of publications, one has to write not works, but to give their one schemes. Below I shall give only schematic lists of customs. Readers have to fill in details and its interpretation themselves.
Ancient people were strongly afraid of ground pollution in summer. Pollution is named "eteh abappyta" which means "a devil of the old soiled manors and stopping places". The thinner the thawing ground is the less people and cattle should use such soil.
Two and more families were forbidden to live there. They tried to restrict even compelled djukkashestvo, joint residing of two families. They forbade to visit etehi without need. On arrival of a person to eteh after long absence in native places, it was necessary to put a stone with a through hole in the center of eteh and to feed fire. Those who did not execute a ceremony became victims of eteh abaapyta. On arrival from a distance a person in his old age was advised to visit eteh for the devil necessarily "ate" them. Those who in their old age arrived from a distance to die were considered, as if «they were drawn with the native sepulchral ground to itself" (" buora tardybyt ").
It was forbidden to build new house on a place not only eteha, but any taken down and burned down house, including manors, cow-shed and etc.
To make inhabited manors and pastures less soiled, each family had as minimum four seasonal manors "surt": autumn surt, spring surt and etc. the word "surt" from ugro-samodian word "jurt", from it the word "jurta" is formed too. The Yakut dwelling had ugro-samodian name "mo" (holomo from kalamo - the fishing house, haltaama - measles house).
The word "mo" replaced Tungus word "duu" or "die". A Turkic "house" is the word "uj". It was very strictly forbidden to mass cattle, horses and deer in one place. Peculiar kind of deer-capacity, cattle-capacity, and man-capacity of areas was used to their dispersal. Hence you would understand why ancient Yakutia had no any settlement. You would also understand why since olden days grown in similar ecological cleanliness, today yakuts have decayed in settlements which copy cities and villages of the West with eternally thawed ground. There the thawed ground cleans itself, and the ground of Yakutia only keeps pollution, including agricultural chemistry and etc. Results became more serious than, possibly, troubles Aral. How could one call ancient as "savages".
Ancient people thought the nature was very fragile. So, it was forbidden to change nature's shape. Therefore before the Russian came to Yakutia there were almost no releases of lakes, clearings of forest and drainage of bogs for economic areas. That is why there is a small number of the cultivated animals and nearly an absence of rather rich people. They lived on deer-, cattle-breeding, i.e. they used to go hunting and fishing on deer and also on very few cows and fillies for milk to children. The complex was broken up partially after the Russian came. They restricted to accumulate livestock of the cultivated animals. The custom "kyj" testifies it. When the quantity of the cultivated horses reached a forbidden boundary, the infringer forced to drive away the certain number of cultivated animals to their wild herds on grassy upper reaches of rivulets. Details of that Paleolithic diringov custom are not necessary for a today's practice. I do not find necessary to overload the given brief reference book with them. Fishing and gaming over need was punished mercilessly. It was forbidden to allow to children to play with gamed and a fished carcasses. If somebody accidentally hunted inedible fishes and game, in accordance with customs he was obliged to eat it. Otherwise victims would damn him. Such damnation was called "buu". "Seren buuluoba! » meant “mind out! It will damn!” they warned everyone. “Buu” inedible animals such as all kinds of insects, some species of fishes, all birds (except of borovoy and natatorial), dogs, foxes, wild feline family, wolves were considered especially dangerous. Shaman "fangered", "sharp-clawed", and prophetic birds, such as parrot-like little birds, golden-eye, diver, cuckoo, lark, local nightingale were considered especially dangerous. To make accidentally killed inedible animals not to cause harm, they put a part of it meet in their mouth or beak and they buried it in graves on trees, called “arangas”, and on forks of trees. They believed, that their avengers should "accuse" killed inedible animals, seeing in their beak and mouth a piece of meat supposedly «it was caught stealing ". The interdiction to kill "inedible" animals was as the most ancient kind of «the Red Book ". One cannot think up more reliable one.
Every element, the phenomenon, district, a natural rarity were allocated with the spirit-owner - the ecological defender. For example, Sung Daahyn ("Sung" - onomatopoeic, Daagyn - from "daahyj" - to yawn) is the thunderer with fiery lash. It was considered as the heaven hunter of terrestrial vagrant devils. It was accepted to search for a stone of happiness under a tree broken by a lightning. It was found out, if under a tree casually there was an ancient stop place with stone instruments. Found out stone instrument served as an amulet of happiness and obereg from illnesses and accidents. They came only at a morning dawn immediately after a thunder-storm to search “a stone of happiness ".
They came to a broken tree, stealthily, as to an animal. They began to dig in prayful silent mutter. If they found it was required to say a cheer: "alakyy" or "alyas" from Tungus «alake! « which meant «hurrah! ". By the way, exclamations "uruj" and "ajhal" were said only on wedding and Ysyakh. "Uruj" is from "uruu» means «give posterity and an increase of cattle ". »Ajhal" in Tungus has similar value. A yeld "kyyryk" was used to encourage a winning man and in victory in sport competitions. It replaced «hurrah! » also in military cases. They took a stone of happiness, only having fed a fire and spraying liquid food. Take notice, that there were completely no those ancient military-sports exclamations and exclamations of tungus - hunnigan eposes in horse olonho which gave to Yakuts concept "uluger" (emergency, scandal) and a word "gahaj" - " the relative mother " (hahajdaan). It turns out, that "horse" olonho is younger than Tungus nimngakan in Yakutia.
In accordance with costum the spirit-owner of mountains was depicted as the monkey and the word "monkey" in Dictionaries is translated as «haja ichchite " or " spirit-owner of mountains ". The concept CHuchunaa- the Yeti was frequently mixed with spirit-owner of mountains.
For «descendants of stepp livers " the concept "meadow" - "syhyy" corresponded to Tungus "sygii", which meant "wood". Heterogeneity and poliglotism of Sakha people reflected in representation about spirit-owner of taiga. In valley of Viluy the natural bear known as Ehekeen (literally "Grandfather") was considered as spirit-owner of a taiga. It is told below. Singken (hingken) or Sebeki (hebeki) was considered as spirit-owner of wood in upper inflows of Vilyui and in border parts of Yakutia. They were considered to be Tungus words. In practice samodian spirits similar Sibichi and Sibuchi for ents and nganasan were extra evidence that tungus-speaking yakuts had samodian roots. Meanwhile there are representations of the same Sib, on behalf of Sibien, as eccentrical, mischievous, but kind spirit. Hunters transformed in personal portable singken-sebeki all anomalies: a skin motley fibers, willow trunk, in a form of ringlet or knot in the natural growth and etc, including front incisors of reindeer, musk-deer's hoofs, a ball of hypodermic hair of an elk and etc. Some evens called the same Singken as Ydyk. From this the Yakut concept "Ytyk" was formed. Here the concept about spirit-owner of a wood merges with concept about the god of hunting. The hunter kept personal idols in dwelling held at an honourable corner. Going to hunt he carried them with himself in a special bag. If hunting is successful hunter "fed" it from the trophy with words of gratitude. He fed it in this way: he rubbed with fat fore parts of an amulet and spun fat and blood of extraction above a smoke on hot coals. In similar cases they besprayed baked fat and blood on hot coals and flame. So it was done in order not to extinguish fire merely pouring blood and fat on it. From here sources of besprinkling were originated at ysyakh. Blood and fat much earlier than dairy products became objects of sacrificial besprinkling, i. e. domestication of animals. If hunting was a failure, instead of "feeding", the hunter splashed idol with thin willow, sentencing: «You are the bad assistant – we came empty handed ". Bajanaj or Barylakh was considered as a spirit-owner of taiga and the god of hunting in the Central Yakutia and in Northwest. These were also ugro-samodian words Pajanaj and Barulak. (Bar - big,- л - the inflection, -ák-mouth, i. e. "Bigmouthed", and their idols were done bigmouthed.). A very old thick tree of any breed and a special tree "kuduk" were considered sometimes as spirit and the owner of a taiga and hunting. Such long-lived was revered and very much protected. They cut down and cleared of combustible dust around tree for protection against forest fires. Combustion of such relic was considered as a precursor of the big trouble in a given district. Its upper branches had always been covered by gifts in the form of toy models of household goods. Salama on ysyakh, and garlands on the European fur-trees took their beginning from these common Siberian ornaments of a sacred tree. They said as if the first fur-trees came from the Swedish court yard which had borrowed an ornament of a tree from ugro-Finns and we take back ours only in the form of imitation of the West. There were a lot of examples of it. It was the result of chronic belittling ours and glorification only of others supposedly " it is better only another's ".
Tree "kuduk" came from distortion of "aar-kuduk", "aal-kutuk" and "aal-luuk". This was a rather strange tree. It occurred among any species. It was strange because it drew to itself any living creatures as the magnet in neighborhood. They always trampled around it, sat too long on branches up to shine, and the bark was scratched by bear. The similar phenomenon was observed such as urea left among bushes. There were no external differences of "kuduk". Hunters revered "kuduk" very much and did not approach to it in order not to frighten off its visitors with human smell. If they seldom came across kuduk in darkness and during a bad weather it was considered as an omen of the future bad luck. However, old hunters and, not seeing, felt approach to "kuduk" and did not know how. They used to say: "its flair". Apparently, all living creatures of taiga are guided by the same reason too. Hence heathenism pays a lot attention to it.
HUNTING CUSTOMS
Foregoing chapter was named "ecological" conditionally in order to draw common ecological problems. In practice ekologizm runs through the prevailing majority of economic customs of the Yakuts of the past. The custom "chalbarang" or "hebeerin" is local more ancient simplified variant of common northern "bear holiday” occurred from Pacific Amur to Jamal, probably, because there was continuous presence of a inseparable three regions Nanai-Khan-Mangi and Nenei-Hanty-Mansi. Presence of this three at Yakutia is obviously disguised by their division into compounds: nanagiry-mayaaty, ugrosamodian Odu, Maja, Majmaga, Kup, Dap (dabyl), Chap and others. Because of striking similarity of bear carcass without a skin with naked person, all these ethnoses considered the given animal as relative of woman who allegedly had married to bear. Because of that legend there were all conventions with alive and killed bear. Bear was told as demigod and demiman. According to stories about demigod, it knew everything, what they thought about it and told. They told how bear punished those who were eager to meet him and had boasted that would find bear. They told much about kindness and wisdom of the owner of taiga. Hence, in the past nobody dared to think badly of a bear. Everybody refrained from abuse, even when bear injured people and cattle. “The bear has condemned "- wounded men said about bear. Nevertheless, like hunting for lions to catch a bear was equaled to passing a courage examination. Unlike the Tungus, bear hunting for the Yakuts were like a kind of special sport. Not everybody even some professional hunters were allowed to bear-hunting. The head of sports "esehit", which meant a bear-hunter, selected apprentices not only physically hardened men, but also with sufficient nervous training and composure. If there were the slightest symptoms of alarmism and shyness, even athletes were also discharged. Speed of reactions, dexterity and resourcefulness were highly appreciated. Yakut esehit was only man's sports. And Tungus women not only participated on a group beating-up, but quite often successfully fought alone with a bear. Other difference of Yakut esehit from Tungus was hunting a bear mainly in a den. And Tungus hunted also outside of a den.
During bear-hunting all participants used special slangy speech completely, which was called "harystal tyl" – protective language. It replaced almost each word of casual speech. For example, " Yl ere, nykaa Jara, kirgille, kytaanahta hachyj, kytararda tart (literally: gentle Black, take a woodpecker, and knock firm, charge red). The given phrase meant: "Young man, take an axe, cut fire wood, put make a fire ". You will these fragments in the dictionary S.Nikolaeva's book "Evens and evenks of Southeast Yakutia ". One who found out a den informed in passing in the end of usual conversation: "umu-hagby chongottum” which literally meant "has seen a hole” or “Ongholu ukteetim " - " my leg has got into roughness ". Having heard that phrase, esehits pretended to turn a deaf ear. Next day they informed other participants of a beating-up. There were no direct conversations on a round-up. It looked as if a hunter came simply to visit. He informed about a forthcoming round-up with a silent sight and conditional imperceptible gestures. It was so private that nobody, except for the addressee, guessed a preparing round-up. Others should learn about it only then. Next day all participants silently entered into a house of the leader by a dawn. Also silently they approached to a den in file after a leader, bearing on shoulders prepared far away from a den, pole plugs. When they approached, the head thrusted all plugs in a mouth of a den. After having fixed plugs, they began to awake a sleeping bear. Before it awoke completely it was forbidden to start actions. Otherwise, according to superstition, other bears attacked them while sleeping. And actually, there were very few cases of an attack of bears on people while sleeping. They started to shoot a woken up bear one by one. Here esehit trained apprentices in practice. But in safety order, they basically should consist of the most experienced hunters. Before shooting, they bit a bear with spears in a den that was onerous because bear dodged and defended itself. Unskillful bear-hunters gained a victim by plenty of broken spears. Quite often the victim managed to go out of a den. Then they let skilled bear-hunting dogs which apprentices held on a leach keeping them silent. It was difficult to hold dogs on a leach for bear-hunters because that moment they used to be more malicious than some bears. The moment when there must not be any piece of a cord on necks of bear-hunting dogs was the most difficult for apprentices. Straining at leach they cut cord of dog with a knife, an axe or a palm tree. The dog with piece of a cord was perished because of a cord for the clever predator did not miss an opportunity to take advantage of this defect of bear-hunting dogs. A bear going out of a den caused a lot of injuries. Such qualities as composure, speed of reaction, resourcefulness in actions were saving that moment. Sometimes hunters became dangerous each other, because impacts by a palm tree, a spear, an axe and shots got into comrades. Bear-hunting dogs very often helped there. They pulled out wounded men from under paws of a furious bear. They usually took not less than two bear-hunting dogs in a round-up. The more they were, the more reliable it was. Skilled bear-hunting dogs perished only because of depth of snow and small number of dogs. They considered, that in the given business the yakut husky had no equal in fighting alone with a bear to protect a wounded man. The youngest hunter was obliged to go down in a den for killed animal for the first time on a round-up. It was the most ancient custom of training bravery and composure.
Each hunter was obliged to pass through it, for it was a real test. He had to go down without a ladder, having tied insurance cord around a breast. If necessary those who stayed outside of a den should pull out rescued man for that cord. It was not reliable means in case of flight when an animal suddenly revived or grown little bear occurred being first unnoticed. Besides in the darkness of dens eyes of both alive and dead animal equally shone. A way of dragging an animal out of a den was also terrible for beginner. It was required to open a mouth and to thread a stick behind canines. After he clamped a mouth with that stick, he put on strangler of lowered above cord on a muzzle of an animal. Strangler thrown behind a stick, clamped a mouth, and canines did not allow to slide off a loop when they pulled a carcass I extinguished upwards. The narrowness and a stench of a den irritated a beginner very much. And if a bear revived or grown little bear occurred, they sometimes pulled a beginner out of a den in a unconscious condition and he often was already wounded. But that school of courage did not refuse the given test. After a bear was pulled out upwards, the examinee was obliged to transfer upward all smelly lying of an animal and to sweep a den. They destroyed lots of lying made of branches so that there were no remnants of it around. The indestructible custom was the same. Quite often same den was subsequently found chosen by other animal.
At the first puncture with a knife for removal of a skin they used to say: "mind out, grangfather (grandmother) there are sharp twigs: do not cut away!" Those who removed a skin should work with knifes, standing only from one side of a carcass. It was forbidden to work, standing on both parties of carcass otherwise other bears bit hunter with both paws in subsequent fights. Bears were considered as lefthanded, and at fights they especially bewared of impact of left paws. At maneuvering between trunks they tried to shirk to the right. After removal of a skin, they removed a fatty layer of carcass in the same way. Further they took out internal organs skinning without breakage of bones.
CHalbarang or sebeerin, i.e. the feast with bear's flesk was an original feast of pleasure from meal. The today's youth did not know what real famine was like when people swelled and died. Chronic undereating when at breakfast they dreamed to have dinner and supper was also unfamiliar to them and the dream somehow to eat to their heart's content and to satiety haunted constantly for months and years. Neither alcohol, nor drugs attracted them. Those who were really hungry dreamed only to satisfy famine, there were no other desires.
Pre-revolutionary and pre-kolhoz Yakutia was a land of chronic undereating. There was no cultivation in most part of Yakutia even since R.Maak period to the middle of 19 century. According to statistics R.Maak called yakuts as wood-eaters and fish-eaters. Briefly speaking, their basic meals were wood bark (zabolon) and lake minnow (mundu). We do not care this fish unworthly. In fact, minnow on rojon and minnow crackers in fish fat (olorbo - fish salamat) were as delicious as sprat in oil. we proudly offer to foreigners , as our cuisine other people's salamaat and fried dough (oladji), and not so comprehensible potroha. To offer a foreigner potroha is identical to an entertainment of African locust and southeast snakes and dog meat. We do not notice more interesting dishes, such as olorbo, minnow on rojon, jukola, smoked product and sun-dried meat. They took a list of dishes in sixties at Somogotto and today call them national and have not understood, what is better for theirs and others. It turns out that appropriation without an author is not always original standard.
At pre-maak and maak periods wood-eaters and minnow-eaters were lack of fat from the Diring rivulet all life which was the main protection of an organism against hard frost. There was no fat in milk of few cows. There was little fat in meat of underfed cattle. As a result, oil and fat were rare and desired delicacy of yakuts. The riches of all feasts were measured by quantity of layed oil and fat on a table. They used to say on those days "On wedding they had so much oils and fat", "Byttyki Maria had so much chabychah of oil and fat", " there is no fat to cut " (sya kyrbyyr buolbatah), " fat does not make harm " (syanan abaabat). I would recommend you to read "Viluy district" of R.Maak. He did not drive policy and spoke absolute truth. Then you will not believe to all "scientific" and "historical" stories about supposedly ancient paradise of Yakuts. I tested a part of that "paradise" myself.
In told light you will understand, why bear chalbarangs from the Amur to Yamal were named as "the bear holidays ". As rich wedding and ysyakh, chalbarang was a unique opportunity to eat to satiety and to regale with piquant bacon. And they did not need any wine and koumiss.
It was not required to invite to Chalbarang, people who lived near were few and everyone had the right to come without invitation. In accordance with ancient custom nimaata bear was not a property of hunter. He was obliged to present a bear fur to senior or a woman. If she wanted she had a right to choose more beautiful skin if hunter was single.
The feast began with simultaneous feeding of fire and ehekeen. It was forbidden to speak any kind of algys. Fire and ehekeen were fed silently and plentifully. Esekeen was a head of a bear put on a special table in honourable corner of house. The table had one leg decorated by cross-section lines made with charcoal. Feeding it they rubbed nose and mouth of a head of an animal with cow fat, and splashed a fire with blood and fat of a bear. They also shouted in chorus " huuh! ". Everybody ate the first piece of bacon and meat with exclamation " huuh! ", the some people shout " huuh! " waving hands as wings. It meant, that ravens not people ate bear's flask. After dinner they gave to everyone a piece of bear's flask as gifts to their family. So, flask did not remain for hunters themselves. It was the inviolable law of antiquity. Hunters must not grumble even in their thoughts, being afraid of the future bad luck in hunting. Similar nimat with the name "taraan" (from "tarbat" - "distribution") was observed in slaughtering of cows and horses on meat – as a sign of rather recent hunting of these animals as of bear. A proverb about that distribution of meat in accordance with custom "taraan", Okladnikov in I volume translated in "Histories of JAASSR" as millet (taraan buolan tarbammyt). In practice that saying only complained of wasteful character of custom "taraan". And Item Okladnikovu, who did not distribute all meat of his cattle without the rest, whence he knew no that nimat was very wasteful for the Yakuts.
The custom with musk-deer (buucheen) was also instructive. This as small as heir, beautiful animal was not nearly exterminated completely because of curative "musk-deer jets”. One could hadly feed many hungry people with musk-deer venison. When such little animal got in slare, made for an elk, they arranged absolutely hilarious scene. Having brought it to urasa, tenants were given signals applied in cases of catching the largest fat elk lokoj, i.e. they knocked the door and to the question: "Who is there?" they used to answer: "Bajanaj has come, but doors are small – it will not get ". The mistress and kids with joyful laughter ran to feed fire with words: "Thanks to Bajanaj!” An elder son began to imitate how he planned off parts of a door and to squeeze too large-sized animal into a house. Then everybody dramatized how it was difficult to lift allegedly heavy carcass. Having "somehow" dragged "great"animal, dancing "huk-huk" said: " Welcome to us, generous Bajanaj ". The ceremony came to an end with feeding personal hunting idol. The given custom trained to be pleased equally to great and small gifts. They considered, that the god of hunting has a kind feeling with hospitable and grateful, being angry with dissatisfied and indifferent people.
I would give one more picturesque custom with siberian crane. Crane was considered as a bird of happiness, and misfortunes. It was accepted to consider that the lucky beggar can only see and hear, not having frightened away marriage dance of cranes. Unintentionally frightened crane in marriage dance was considered to carry away a part of happiness of a culprit. It was allowed to game cranes only during illegitimate time and after full growth of fledglings. To kill a crane during marriage dance was considered as an irreparable sin. Crane -gamer warned family house knocking not door, but window. It was forbidden to show noisy pleasure. They silently fed fire; the mistress gave female dress and a scarf to a crane -gamer through window. Slowly having dressed in those clothes, he gave a crane through open window to the mistress with words: "Daughter-in-low has come. Welcome a guest ". The mistress, having set "Daughter-in-low" for a honourable table, began to treat and cajole as if alive daughter-in-low. The ceremony was tiresome and long, but nobody dared to reduce it. Only in a day when "daughter-in-low would sleep ", a crane went as usual game.
Crane was considered as the alive goddess of those who was born from gods of the Song and versification" from song roots". Crane was completely taboo bird for them with a lot of conventions and ceremonies. They can be described only in separate book. In general, to be born from song roots was considered as misfortune for the happiness of them should consist only of successes in creative work with continuous bad luck in private life. They used to say "he or she is from song roots" with sad sympathy.
Written by S. Somogotto, 1996.
Translated by Evgenia Popova, a YSU student.
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